women's literature in the 19th century pdf

The Kirklands returned to New York City in 1843, and following William's death in 1846 Kirkland earned money through teaching and writing, serving as editor of the Union Magazine of Literature and Art until 1850. This dual concern, devout belief in an honest Christianity and total rejection of a hypocritical Christianity, is reflected in the works of nineteenth-century Afro-American women. Forty Years Since (1824), Sarah Josepha Hale, Northwood: A Tale of New England (1827), Eliza Buckminster Lee, Sketches of a New-England Village in the Last Century (1838), and Caroline Kirkland, A New Home—Who'll Follow? The men in particular must experience that "private change of heart" which characterized conversion for Lyman Beecher (Sklar 27). Kelley, Mary. However, the contribution of women to oral culture should not be und… Nevertheless, women were not uniformly molded by those social expectations; they developed a variety of responses, such as those illustrated in the letters to Houghton—responses that ranged from Spofford's poetic conformity to Dodge's abrasive defiance. Thank you again, and good-bye.". It is natural for the turning of any century to bring feelings of a new beginning and a break from the past, but when the 19th century gave way to the 20th, change on the See Jeffrey Rubin Dorsky for a discussion of Irving's development of the sketch form. an overarching framework of separate spheres ideology. The 19th century Bangla literature is not a product of the continuous on-going literary tradition of the land, if we for a moment not consider the socio-political changes of the 19th century and the conquest of Bengal in the late 18th century by the British East India Company. A true woman shrinks instinctively from greatness."15. Nineteenth-century discourse still based mental illness on a biological model, but to the extent that women’s mental problems stemmed directly from their reproductive organs, a belief that reflected morally charged assumptions about women’s nature and roles. Tara Revisited: Women, War, and the Plantation Legend. As one such commentator said, "If women were wise they would understand that they have a mission quite as grand as that of literary authorship. She co-founded the Woman's Loyal Union and was its first president, served as chair of the executive board of the National Federation of Afro-American Women (NFA-AW), and as chair of the Committee on Union for the Federation leading to its merger with the League of Colored Women. London: Grin / Verlag Routledge, 2011. Woloch, Nancy. African American women were well aware of the racial limitations of the ideology of separate spheres. ", "Oh, Mr. Houghton," wrote H. H. [Helen Hunt Jackson], enthusiastically, "I am so pleased to hear of the honor to grand old Mr. Whittier. In the following essay, Pryse argues that Harriet Beecher Stowe helped pioneer the literary genre of regionalism that allowed her and other women to seize greater narrative freedom beyond the traditional space allotted to women. ." A number of books by Afro-American women were published either privately or by small, relatively unknown publishing companies. Thus if we wish to understand her unique position in American society we must study her own words as reflected in her writings. Bert Lowenberg and Ruth Bogin in their recent work, Black Women in 19th Century American Life, commented: "If the black male's words, before the most recent period of ferment, were recorded only spasmodically, those of the black female were still less frequently set down on paper. In writing her first sketch Stowe discovers that the process of conversion, a distant forerunner of what feminists in the 1970s termed "consciousness raising," can provide the narrative intention for a work of fiction, thereby allowing ministers' daughters (both Stowe herself and Grace Griswold in the sketch) to imagine expanding their authority in literary and domestic spheres. They faced not only the handicap of being female writers, a "d——d mob of scribbling women" as Nathaniel Hawthorne called them, but of being black. Reading these texts within a specific milieu, Murmu sets out to rectify the essentialist conception of women’s writings being a monolithic body of works that displays a firmly gendered form and content, by offering rich insights into the ... For all that, however, certain patterns emerged, if only in the breach. Rebecca Harding Davis has been credited with introducing realism to the Atlantic with her "Life in the Iron Mills," in 1861. The more liberal perspective, which was definitely a minority view in antebellum America, although one that increased in popularity as the century passed, was expressed by proponents of women's education, legal rights, suffrage, and career opportunities; this group maintained that "true women" were normally superior to men and valued family relations, but could and should be as self-reliant and competent as men. In People's History and Socialist Theory, edited by Raphael Samuel, 227–40. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1889. In 1837 they purchased eight hundred acres of land sixty miles west of Detroit, where they founded the village of Pinckney—the village that would serve as the model for Kirkland's town of Montacute in A New Home. Rather they are best seen as a contested terrain, a field of cultural conflict where signs with wide appeal and resonance take on contradictory disguises and are spoken in contrary accents. Sculley Bradley, Richard Beatty, E. Hudson Long, and George Perkins. Alice Dunbar Nelson, quoted in Robert Kerlin: This event is usually remembered for Clemens's speech about Emerson, Longfellow, and Holmes. She indicated how remarkable it was that these women had overcome such enormous obstacles to accomplish as much as they had, with little help from anyone but the white women who traveled South after the war to help educate the masses. Saunders uniquely explores how women poets, biographers, historians, and visual artists used medieval motifs, forms, and settings to enable them to comment more freely on controversial contemporary issues, such as war and gender roles. It was perhaps in recognition of Sedgwick as well as an attempt to distance herself from the controversy that led Stowe to change the title of "A New Although the ideology implied parity, there was an assumed hierarchy of importance and power: public life was where change happened and was the arena of history. While the values of American Victorianism were derived primarily from the values of white males and were meant to apply primarily to men in society, they were also heard by and had an influence on women. "1 Livermore's memoirs, which chronicled her work in the U.S. Sanitary Commission, testified to the breadth and depth of her contribution to the Union cause.2 The war, for her, was a life-changing event, impacting on her views, her work, and her subsequent life. See also Jameson, "Reification and Utopia. If the white mainstream ideology of separate spheres was not broken by the war, at the end of the war it was severely bent and adjusted; its reimposition in the postwar years, enabled by a celebratory story of patriotic women now eager to return to domesticity, was never complete. The changing social circumstances of women, particularly middle-class ones, also provided opportunities for fuller public participation, despite messages that woman's place was in the home. The only black poetess who devoted a considerable amount of her energies to this cause was Frances Harper. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1970. Hamilton, Gail [Mary Dodge]. "41 Particularly for women like Lydia Maria Child, Jane Swisshelm, Mary Abigail Dodge, and others trained (or self-taught) in the Critics have identified several works by women with the roots of the regional tradition in American fiction, in particular Lydia Huntley Sigourney, Sketch of Connecticut. By 1872 women wrote nearly three-quarters of all of the novels published. New York: New York University Press, 1958. "42 This book explores how the writings of women reached out into public life during this tumultuous time, "round[ing] out into undefined space," and touching their hearts, as Oliver Wendell Holmes put it, "with fire."43. 19th Century Feminist Movements. Phantasies of matriarchy in Victorian children's literature, Breaking apart: the early Victorian divorce novel, A Literature of Their Own: British Women Novelists from Brontë to Lessing, Silent Voices: Forgotten Novels by Victorian Women Writers, Harriet Martineau and Millicent Garrett Fawcett. Woman's sphere is to elevate, to purify, to teach, and her empire is home. 0000001289 00000 n Encyclopedia.com gives you the ability to cite reference entries and articles according to common styles from the Modern Language Association (MLA), The Chicago Manual of Style, and the American Psychological Association (APA). The first book of poetry published by a black poetess in the nineteenth-century, Ann Plato's Essays: Prose and Poetry (1841), contained a tribute to England for its abolition of slavery in the poem "To the First of August.". Such a magazine might be profitable, and I know the dinner would be delightful. Tangled within separate sphere ideology were assumed ideologies of class and race. Embraced by some, it was emphatically rejected by others as a kind of dismissal of the connections and responsibilities of family and community. 20 Dorothy Sterling, ed., We Are Your Sisters: Black Women in the Nineteenth Century , (New York: W.W. The explanation of the paradox lies, first, in the ambiguous nature of cultural messages to and about women. To some extent anyway, Victorian perspectives were shared by women and men. Many whites preferred to read about the lives of black men from the pens of white racist romanticists like Thomas Dixon. Smith-Rosenberg, Carroll. Even the editors who published the works of these writers—William T. Porter and his Spirit of the Times, and James T. Hall and the Western Monthly Magazine—take up opposing or "separate" positions on the topic of women as cultural subjects. She locates the origins of nineteenth-century American feminism within the decade of the 1830s and asserts that the development of feminism actually depended on the ideology of "woman's sphere. In 1850, Susan Warner's (1819-1885) The Wide, Wide World --the story of an orphaned girl forced to find her spiritual path in an often oppressive world- … Matthews was national organizer of the newly formed National Association of Colored Women (NACW), and contributed numerous articles to the Woman's Era, the official journal of the NACW. It is absolutely true, of course, that women's lives and careers were controlled by their society's patriarchal perspectives; even after building successful careers, women had to respond to social circumstances, stereotypes, and assumptions about women and women writers that were largely created and perpetuated by men. "Now this is the dreadful," said Mr. Houghton, striking the desk with his clenched hand. 0000006579 00000 n Laboring women were less fortunate. DuBois, Ellen Carol. Being woman was the primary fact and being womanly the major glory, according to proponents of True Womanhood. Among the dozens of women writers who broached the war topic—some popular and others virtually unknown—these nine seemed both exceptional and representative, covering varied audiences and overlapping generations. Genre is also a "chestnut burr" in the emerging world of "separate spheres. Given these venues—papers like the New York Ledger, magazines like Atlantic Monthly—the politics of these nine women were representative. Kessler-Harris, Alice. Reading "Uncle Lot" in its various contexts thus opens up, to use Stowe's own language in the sketch, a "chestnut burr" of genre in American fiction; the sketch kept alive for Stowe the possibility that her female successors might experience the authority of authorship, thereby "converting" her own readers to the idea that women's voices and women's values can influence her own postrevolutionary and our own postmodern American culture. The market for this form of fiction was closely tied to commercial circulating libraries, such as Mudie's and W. H. Smith. The conservatives believed that women were assigned by God and nature to their separate sphere of activity and should rejoice in that. When Rip Van Winkle comes down from the mountain and finds his new place in his postrevolutionary village as a "chronicle of the old times 'before the war'" (40), Washington Irving creates a vocation for the American artist. Matthews contributed articles to the major New York newspapers and leading African American publications. Modern critical analysis of nineteenth-century women's literature seeks, in part, to understand the underlying reasons that women authors, especially in … 5 (December 1975): 507-32. As stated earlier Afro-American women wrote of issues other than race. Derby, James C. Fifty Years among Authors, Books, and Publishers. New Jersey: Princeton University Press. Correspondence between Lydia Maria Child, and Gov. Judith Fetterley and I have made this argument in the introduction to American Women Regionalists, our collection of some of the central works in the regionalist tradition, and an analysis of the cultural moment in which "Uncle Lot" first appears provides early evidence that regionalism and "local color," though often conflated, do represent different articulations of and attitudes toward regional subjects. Rarely in the North did any true consensus hold, even in the edited arena of public writing. The public war dialogue on women, African American slavery, and class demonstrated both the ideology's inherent elasticity and its clear limitations. Not surprisingly, class issues took on new relevance for middle-class women concerned about national unity as well as eager to establish a vision of universal womanhood. 1957. As Julia Cooper pointed out in A Voice From the South (1892), black women face a special dilemma in American society: The colored woman of today occupies, one may say, a unique position in this country.…She is confronted by both a woman question and a race problem.25. The rise in literacy in nineteenth-century Britain led to an increase in the size of the reading public. analyzing the women through the lens of the nineteenth-century concepts of the female body and mind, it becomes clear that the monstrous female in literature crosses multiple social and physical boundaries, challenging norms and confirming sexist stereotypes and further confusing the paradoxes of the proper and improper body. <<9A90652F3AA3F84395D959FF97A5901C>]>> This dissertation is the first to apply gendered consent theory to nineteenth-century British literature and history, and it asserts that in and out of fiction, women's consent was usually compromised in marital scenarios. Rable, George. Women themselves varied in their attitudes toward their society's prescriptions for womanhood, but whatever their view, the values they were socialized to accept did not make them wholly distinct from their male counterparts. At least as literary history has recorded it, Brom Bones inspired an entire "school" of tall tale fiction by the Old Southwest humorists, whereas Ichabod Crane disappeared into the "sleepy region. He replies, "It's no wonder that ye don't Ma'am, there's such a neest on 'em. ——. Their topics ranged from humorous folk tales to bitter satires reflecting the racial climate of post-Civil War America. She describes him as a "chestnut burr, abounding with briers without and with substantial goodness within" but "'the settest crittur in his way that ever you saw'" ("Uncle Lot" 7, 12). : The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1975. Livermore, Mary. Along with her journalistic writings and speeches, she authored several short stories and edited Black-Belt Diamonds: Gems from the Speeches, Addresses and Talks to Students of Booker T. Washington (1898), a collection of excerpts from Washington's speeches. exclaimed Mr. Houghton, "this must be a conspiracy. Rose Terry Cooke, for instance, so impressed her peers that she was given the lead story in the premier issue of the Atlantic in 1857. Filed Under: Essays. Stowe's vision of Uncle Lot as the "settest crittur you ever saw" and the challenge she sets her hero to convert Uncle Lot to the expression of feeling establishes her perspicacity in implicitly predicting that gender itself would remain a "chestnut burr" within American culture, that is, a briery issue difficult to open but yet containing its own reward. But what exactly was a nineteenth-century woman supposed to be? Brings to light unsuspectedly rich sources of humor in the works of prominent nineteenth-century women writers. The Living Age (June 25, 1864): 609-10. Unlike Hall, whose interest in developing western material inspired his work, Porter was a commercialist, interested more in the culture of the sporting world than in literature. First, works of art issue from historical conditions and are reflections of particular social condi-tions and relationships. The Emergence of the Middle Class: Social Experience in the American City, 1760-1900. Thus, despite Stowe's claim that Grace figures as her heroine, she pays very little attention to Grace herself. Christianity played an African-American women at the turn of the twentieth century were also involved in writing about the world around them. 2 (January 1949): 176-85. ——. Two ubiquitous themes emerged during the prewar years in the public writing of women, although they were never agreed upon. Although absent from this important dinner in literary history, women authors were very popular and prominent in the nineteenth century, particularly during and after the 1850s. Tompkins, Jane. As Mary Abigail Dodge (Gail Hamilton) wrote, "They make a great mistake, who think a strong, brave, self-poised woman is unwomanly. Elizabeth Stuart Phelps, who came of age as a writer during the war, perhaps more accurately captured its meaning when she remembered in her 1897 autobiography a country "dark with sorrowing women. Secondly, a new recognition of class difference and the limits of gender solidarity emerged during the late 1850s. By writing on issues of great national concern and by professing to speak for all women, middle-class white women writers were continuing the work of class formation, the political work central to their understanding of the war. Dimity Convictions: The American Woman in the Nineteenth Century. those of the 19th century women writers. Boston: Little, Brown, and Company, 1909. Among other related tasks, the commission gathered money, food, and supplies of all kinds and distributed them to the soldiers. While black poetesses concerned themselves about such issues as religion, intemperance, and women's rights, their overwhelming concern focused on racial issues and it was in this area that their poetry achieved its greatest strength. Some women played a prominent part in religion in the 18th century. This book will be treasured not only by students but also by those who wish to study critically the feminist writings of the period. In addition, it will enrich readers’ understanding of American and British literary history and culture. It would have embarrassed me greatly. The editors of the fourth edition of the well-known Norton Anthology of American Literature concluded their discussion of Anne Bradstreet by stating: "When all has been said, the principal contribution of Anne Bradstreet to posterity is what she revealed, through herself, of the first generation of New Englanders. Most startling of all, Ichabod turns out to be no settler after all but rather to have fantasies of sacking the "sleepy region" in order to invest "in immense tracts of wild land, and shingle palaces in the wilderness," toward which he would set off, Katrina and the children on top of a wagon and "himself bestriding a pacing mare" (Irving 280). As a result, women had diverging positions on the reigning ideologies supporting the Union war effort, even as they claimed a public space in the discussion of the war's necessity and purpose. They stressed hard work, deferred gratification, sobriety, and conscientiousness—qualities that were essential to an industrializing society. Rhetoric, or the art of persuasion through language, only works when it draws upon a powerful common longing; without such longing, it is utterly ineffectual. Futhermore, these writers had an audience familiar enough with their works to understand the humorist's allusions to spanking the Administration and meeting in Mr. Blaine's house. 0000003363 00000 n Thus Dame Van Winkle survives in the work of Harriet Beecher Stowe not as a shrill-voiced termagant but as a woman capable of using her verbal facility in order to assert, in Grace's closing lines, "authority in these days" ("Uncle Lot" 31). This is an extremely significant work.'-Laura Salsini 0000052997 00000 n 0000004579 00000 n Many thought men should imitate women's piety, purity, and gentleness; conversely, women in their sphere or beyond it should be as intelligent, self-reliant, and courageous as men. "Have you heard that Mrs. Stowe is about to give a dinner? Of particular note are the following in order of appearance in the historical dialogue: Barbara Welter, "The Cult of True Womanhood: 1800-1860,", The degree to which this ideology applied to lived experience has been challenged by historians. This inequality made women powerless and had to obey men. The U.S. Sanitary Commission (USSC) was organized early in the war as a voluntary association designed to help the Army Medical Bureau. Women and History 2, 3 (1982). THE LITERARY WORK If patriarchal views had been wholly accepted, the article would never have been written. Athens: Ohio University Press, 1976. ", In reading "Uncle Lot" to the Semi-Colon Club, Stowe had the good fortune to attract the attention of editor James Hall of the Western Monthly Magazine. My pleasure is only exceeded by my joy that I am not to be there. Frances Harper, Cordelia Ray, and especially Josephine Heard wrote some very fine love lyrics. He turned with a sigh to a letter from Philadelphia. New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985. In it, Mary Abigail Dodge, or Gail Hamilton, laughingly scorned the tired "platitudes" concerning "woman's opportunities for self-sacrifice, moral heroism, silent influence, might of love, and all that cut-and-dried woman's-sphereism." The Twentieth Century "Immoral Fiction in the Late Victorian Library." I suppose it would do no good either—you men are determined to have your own way always, and ours are often as possible. "4 Based on the obvious omission of nineteenth-century Afro-American women authors from our literary Sara Payson Parton (Fanny Fern) and Sara Jane Lippincott (Grace Greenwood) had thousands of readers for their essays on social and domestic topics, as did Maria Cummins for her novels. ." 19th Century Feminist Movements. Stowe certainly knew Sedgwick's A New England Tale (1822), the novel Baym credits with inaugurating the genre of woman's fiction; Sklar notes that it had created controversy within the Beecher family and that Catharine in particular had attacked Sedgwick, a convert to Unitarianism, as having betrayed her social position and the Calvinist tradition (44-45). Fern was one of the most well known authors of the 19. th . In the 1820s, James Fenimore Cooper's publisher stated that "the utmost limits to which the sale of a popular book can be published" would be 6,500. A few individual writers questioned separate sphere ideology explicitly. Women were hardly invisible as writers.2. Uneven Developments: The Ideological Work of Gender in Mid-Victorian England. 0000053294 00000 n PROSTITUTION IN 19TH CENTURY IRELAND 485 Women’s History Review, Volume 6, Number 4, 1997. how prostitution and prostitutes were described by the police, clergy, medical and legal profession and by the rescue worker. My Story of the War. x���=s�:П�ַN�z�SӪN��5���,�,���9���w7!0z, q �O\ 8����������\.b �y|g�������ϟ�����~g� [eǝ�= �)C��wN�������}g����4���(���e � ����wf����V��{���������?�� endstream endobj 125 0 obj<>stream In the scene which depicts this "conversion," James Benton arrives for an unannounced visit to Uncle Lot's house with the ostensible goal of winning Uncle Lot's affection. For sketches in which men are the principal actors, he says, he uses the name Hall; for those in which women are the most prominent, he writes under the name Baldwin" (Meriwether 358; Longstreet v). This joy of pride in accomplishment is also reflected in Cordelia Ray's two poems "In Memoriam: Frederick Douglass" and "In Memoriam: Paul Lawrence Dunbar." "The Family as Utopian Retreat from the City: The Nineteenth-Century Contribution." For the nineteenth century, sectional voices split along geographical lines; in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, massive immigration between 1870 and 1914 produced "a regionalism of languages, folk customs, humor, music and beliefs" set against processes of Americanization; "the regionalism of our own times … is one of gender and race" (242-43). As historian James Horton has shown, the Northern antebellum African American community in Philadelphia found it impossible to accommodate to this ideology on a daily basis. New York: Vintage, 1985. The most urgent preoccupation of her bright, young heroines is courtship and finally marriage. not simply imposed by men to justify the patriarchal social order, although men certainly did argue for separate spheres to that end. And I shall not confine myself to my sphere. 0000053194 00000 n Found insideFocusing particularly on the critical reception of Jane Austen, Charlotte Brontë and George Eliot, Joanne Wilkes offers in-depth examinations of reviews by eight female critics: Maria Jane Jewsbury, Sara Coleridge, Hannah Lawrance, Jane ... And without us? This work was emphatically political—meaning that it participated in the power relations in society—if it was rarely directly partisan: it entered a terrain of national concern, offering an interpretation of the nation's needs and fears.11. Seminar Paper. Thus the values and interests of the slave-holding sportsmen and their allies contrast decidedly with the values and interests of the audience for and contributors to Hall's Western Monthly Magazine. Outside the pages of the Atlantic, women were equally successful. endstream endobj 126 0 obj<>stream In the following essay, Simson argues that the small amount of literary output available by nineteenth-century African-American women is deserving of scholarly attention. New York: Fowler and Wells, Publishers, 1882. Women Outside the Mainstream. The last two decades have witnessed an explosion of interest on writing by and about black women. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1989. Life of Harriet Beecher Stowe, Compiled from Her Letters and Journals. Modern critical analysis of nineteenth-century women's literature seeks, in part, to understand the underlying reasons that women authors, especially in America, Britain, and France, were able to gain such widespread exposure and prominence in an age known for its patriarchal and often dismissive attitude toward the intellectual abilities of women. Greater numbers of women flocked to the factories of the postwar North, but it is likely this would have happened despite any wartime advances. This dualism was best expressed by W.E.B. And just in case his readers remain insufficiently convinced that Dame Van Winkle is dead and worry that she might return to haunt them or pose a threat to Rip's postrevolutionary authority, Irving resurrects her in a literary way as Ichabod Crane in "The Legend of Sleepy Hollow," then frightens "her" out of town, not needing the Freudian and Lacanian theories of our own century to make the point that gender anxiety for men signifies the fear of absence, castration, headlessness.6. Best-seller lists reveal that by the 1850s women were authors of almost half of the popular literary works. Women's relationship to republicanism was uneasy, given their subordinate status within it: as dependents, at least ideologically, their voices were not meant to be heard in a national public context, just as their political ideas, represented by the vote, were not accepted. Throughout the days of slavery and even after, the white man twisted the scriptures to suit his purposes. her satirical fictions marked the transition from the 18th-century neoclassicism to the 19th-century romanticism in the English literature. Sketches collected in a less ambiguous masculinity than does Kaplan african-american women deserving! British culture not present in canonized works and therefore revise our understanding American... Brilliant gathering will feel my absence so immense a place will be treasured only! In religion in the mail reprinted during the whole century will be given Majors, p. 82 ) generally in! Series, but will do so directly was emphatically rejected by others as a patriarchal.! 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